Identify the historical and cultural factors Essay Example for Free

Identify the historical and cultural factors Essay Identify the historical and cultural factors that contribute to the development of the learning perspective. To what extent is the learning perspective relevant today?  The study of how humans learn is a dominant component of the learning perspective. The study of behaviour in this perspective and is also commonly known as the Behaviouristic Approach, as they believe that behaviour is the only valid data in psychology. Behaviourism developed simultaneously in the United States and Russia in relation to many factors. Traditional Behaviourists believed that all organisms learn in the same way, and could be explained by the processes of classical and operant conditioning. Learning can be defined as a relatively permanent change in behaviour and/or knowledge that occurs as a result of practice and/or experience in the environment. Psychologists working within this perspective have investigated he ways in which behaviour changes, usually using laboratory experiments, and often-using non-human animals. The Learning perspective developed simultaneously in the United States and Russia with American Theorists John Watson, Albert Bandura and Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov.  The way in which behaviour can be observed is seen as being objectively or unbiased, and this is the opposite to the theory of introspection. The unreliability of the way in which subjective data is obtained in introspection is one of the main criticisms that lead to the rise of behaviourism. In introspection the data collected in said to be subjective and therefore biased in the sense that it comes from ones own mind. Give me a dozen healthy infantsand my own specified world to bring them up in and Ill guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select doctor, lawyerand yes, even beggarman and thief.1  John Watson 1913  Watson wrote an article titled Psychology as the behaviourist views it. This article, which set out all main assumptions and principles, sparked the rise of the behaviourist movement in 1913. Albert Bandura was the major motivator behind the social learning theory, which included cognitive factors that were not incorporated by behaviourists, as they thought behaviour was almost entirely determined by the environment. Bandura suggests that much behaviour, including aggression, is learnt from the environment through reinforcement and the process of modelling. Bandura integrated cognitive influences and called his modified theory the social learning theory. Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, whilst conducting experiments on the digestive systems on dogs stumbled across the developed principles of classical conditioning. All these factors contributed to the advancement of the learning perspective, as we know it today. Key concepts of the perspective are classical and operant conditioning, social, latent and insight learning. All concepts are built from the historical and cultural factors that gave rise to the learning perspective. Findings after conduction of experiments show a remarkable relevance to todays society and knowledge. Whether it is classical conditioning and relating findings to aversion therapy or operant conditionings relation to animal training or modifying behaviour through reinforcement and punishment. Therefore it is important to research experimenters who performed relevant experiments to relate their results to today. Classical condition is learning through association, which was accidentally found by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov. Pavlov was conducting experiments in relation to dogs digestive systems when he stumbled on, what is known as, classical conditioning. Pavlov noticed that dogs did not only salivate when food was placed in front of them, but they also salivated before the food was given to them, and was triggered by other factors such as upon hearing or seeing Pavlov, or the sound of footsteps. Pavlov then discovered that the anticipation of receiving the food made the dogs salivate. Pavlov then modified his experiment to test whether using a stimulus such as meat powder, which caused salivation, could be varied and a conditioned stimulus such as the ringing of a bell could also bring about the unconditioned response of salivation originally caused by being presented with the sight of the meat powder. Pavlov used a soundproof room, to minimise and limit extraneous variables so he could be sure that it was i.e. only the ringing of a bell that was affecting the salivation after the conditioned stimulus. John Watson performed another example of classical conditioning when he experimented on Little Albert in 1920. Behaviourists learning theorists such as Watson suggested that phobias were conditioned emotional responses. Certain stimuli, such as sudden loud noises, naturally cause fear reactions, and stimuli that become associated with them will acquire the same emotional responses. Little Albert was presented with a white laboratory rat to which he showed no fear response. Watson then associated the loud noise simultaneously with the presentation of the rat, Little Albert then associated fear with the rat, and was then able to generalise these response to other fluffy white objects. The study with Little Albert has serious ethical problems. Firstly that he participated in the experiment involuntary and without the consent of his mother. Also Watson reported that they hesitated about proceeding with the experiment but comforted themselves that Albert would encounter such traumatic associations when he left the sheltered environment of the nursery anyway. This is not a very good ethical defence, especially since they believed such associations might persist indefinitely and did not leave sufficient time to remove the fear afterwards, despite knowing that Albert was due to leave. Classical conditioning can be related to today with the development of therapies using classical conditioning techniques to extinguishing fear. The first technique of therapy is the systematic desensitation, which aims to extinguish the fear response of a phobia, and substitute a relaxation response to the conditional stimulus gradually, step by step. This therapy was developed mainly by Wolpe, who stated that in order for the fear to be removed gradually, a hierarchy of fear must be formed and ranked by the subject from least fearful to most fearful. The subject is then given training in deep muscle relaxation techniques so it can then be used at each stage of the hierarchy starting from the least fearful to the most and only progressing when the subject feels sufficiently relaxed. This method of treatment has a very high success rate with specific phobias, i.e. of particular animals. It is considered to work particularly well because the response of fear and relaxation is said to be impossible for them to exist at the same time. The second techniques of therapy are implosion and the flooding techniques, when both methods produce extinction of a phobias fear by the continual and dramatic presentation of the phobic or situation. Wolpe in 1960 forced a girl with a fear of cars into the back seat of a car and drove her around for 4 hours straight until her hysterical fear completely disappeared. Marks et al (1981) say that this kind of therapy works because eventually some stimulus exhaustion takes place, as you cannot scream forever and then the conditioned fear response extinguishes. The technique most similar to classical conditioning is called Aversion Therapy, and is most relevant to todays treatment of alcoholism, smoking or overeating. The technique aims to remove undesirable responses to certain stimuli by associating them with aversive stimuli, in the hope that the undesirable responses will be avoided in the future. Aversion therapy has been used to treat alcoholism, for example the person is given alcohol with a nausea-inducing drug unsuspectingly, and should then feel sick. The person associates drinking with their intestinal distress and results found that two out of three people did not have any alcohol a year later. Although it has a high success rate, ethical considerations of deliberating causing discomfort to another person through deception must be taken into account. The limitation of this type of therapy is its difficulty to generalise to other situations from where the learning took place.

Wings Of Fire Book Review and Summary

Wings Of Fire Book Review and Summary Written by Dr. A.P.J Abdul Kalam, honorable President of India. Wings of Fire is an autobiography capable of inspiring even a common man into becoming a technologist. A well composed novel which revolves around the life of Mr. Kalam a renowned scientist as he shares his experiences and the minutest of details of his life. I like the way the book has been put together along with the delicate facts of his personal life. His family background, the pain and suffering he went through and recollected himself is commendable. The day I finished reading this book, such an influential personality impacted me very deeply and it gave me a glimpse of how the power of positive thinking can help achieve all odds. This autobiography comprises of a balance of details of the technological and political challenges faced to prosper in its aeronautical and space program. It is also a success story of Dr.Kalams participative management practices. Also, it gives an insight into the lives of Hindus and Muslims of India and their relationships among each other and among multi religious communities in India. Wings of Fire is an account of a young boy who tries to achieve his dreams beating all odds. The story emphasizes the importance of family, relatives and friends in helping achieve each others goals and turning dreams to reality. It teaches us to become a patriotic citizen of our country shown in the book as a determinant India and countless effort of its scientists in achieving superiority in aeronautical, space and rocket technology. This book offers an important lesson of finding success from failures of Indian space and rocket infrastructural programs. A good presentation of the role of other renowned scientists moulding our countrys future. This book is full of information and is a recommended choice for every student, because this book has the influence and power to motivate a person to stand out in life. Wings of Fire is a unique model of accomplishing ones goals, while fulfilling the promise to its country. As I read through this book I felt the same humility that Mr.Kalam felt when he was engaged into the program. A friend recommended me this book and I am glad that he did. This book is an biography of Indias president Abdul Kalam which has been co-authored with famous Arun Tiwari, who once had worked with Kalam in the field of military defense research. As from the book itself, this is the story of Kalam who flourished from darkness into the bright sunlight, his personal and professional effort. . . . . . . This is also the narrative of independent Indias struggle for technological self adequacy sovereignty in defense systems a story as much regarding politics, as it is regarding science. The story tells us about Kalams rise from a humble lower-middle class family his narrative of Indias efforts in rocketry space technology. Segregated into four sections, the book gradually reaches for the stars Orientation, Creation, Propitiation Contemplation. As a tribute to his mother and father, the book is dedicated to his parents. The first segment relates to the early life of Avul Pakir Jainulabdeen Kalam. His recollections of the early days are very suggestive of good old Magudi set up. He remembers his parents, relatives and teachers his most influential characters in the book. Adding color to the section are pictures of that time. This segment covers all his early learning and travels. The next segment is related to Kalams further education and work experience and his involvement with projects of military defense and space, primarily the SLV3. This part has many scientific details and is an introduction to defense and space research organizations. Kalam is an aam aadmi at heart, this is shown in the book in many of his narratives through his interaction with even the insignificant people in the hierarchy like Dr Brahm prakash, Prof Satish Dhawan and Prof Vikram Sarabhai. The third segment covers the years from 80-91 when Kalam is posted from ISRO to military defense labs. Filled with many pictures, this section too keeps us entertained. And to imagine he worked mostly in government institutions where bureaucracy and red tapes are the order of the day. We have all heard of SLV3, PSLV, Akaash, Naga, Agni, Trishul in the news and these technological achievements marks the success of what is now, one of the strongest and determined aeronautical and space organization of India. The last segment is connected with the later years where Kalam is bestowed upon with series of awards, his thought and his visions for a proud India. It is almost impossible not to be inspired by the life of Mr.Kalam. This segment along with the conclusion also mentions of Kalams dream for the year 2020. The book itself is written in simple English and it seems as if the author is speaking out to the reader directly. One must read this for the following reasons Indias greatest scientist Abdul Kalams story, military and defense research, missile technology, Indias vital space programs and general knowledge. Throughout the book there are morals that are for the grooming purposes for everyone, even for the administrators. Abdul Kalam tells us how the finest of people can be brought out. Abdul Kalam is referred to as spiritual scientist, his visions and contributions to his country. As a young man, Abdul Kalam was inquisitive and keen to learn more and more about science. Kalams mentors persuaded him to ponder onto the great opportunity into space science and by achieving this India will become self-sufficient in aeronautical and rocket science. He was the first one with a vision that India has great potential in its space and satellite development of launch vehicles. SLVs provide as the foundation for a range of state-of-the-art missile technology in Indias military. From an American viewpoint, when everyone is shouting bloody murder and weapon proliferation, Abdul Kalams memories of Frances taking away of support and fake accusations of German help serve as a alarming reminder that embargoing a country simply cannot work if the countrys public is strong enough to control their own destiny. Its worrying that there is little debate on the ethics of an impoverished country developing nuclear weapons and deploying delivery systems. . . .But thats almost totally lost in the argument of self-reliance, a determination to never again surrender to foreign rule. Abdul Kalam, an optimist, made helped India become self sufficient in its space and rocket technology. The book also inspires the youth of India living nationally and internationally that they appreciate the one marvel achieved by their nations hero, Abdul Kalam and strive themselves to become strong in every area of their profession and make India prosper for eternity. Abdul Kalam, the man with many names. He is most trusted man in India according to survey, He is also known as the missile man of India. Abdul Kalam will be cherished long after he is gone, the man whom India loves. The book is a journey into Abdul Kalams life; the book however does not cover his presidency days that were published before he became the president of India. Abdul Kalam stayed in Ramesh Varam which is famous for its Shiv temple. The famous temple was few kilometers journey from Abdul Kalams home, a Muslim dominated area. Abdul Kalam use to sell newspapers to help his brother, was good friend of the priest of the temple and his father was respectable man whom people used to turn for advice. Abdul Kalam writes about his school days, his brother in laws influence on him and his teachers in the initial chapters. He also writes about his financial challenges he faced during the time he was into education. The later chapters are some of Vikram Sarabhais immense contribution in establishment of space research center and opening up new feets for coming scientists. Abdul kalams efforts in association with other scientist would make ordinary Indian understand the zeal , the effort of human soul in making India , a well respected country in space science. As a mentor of Abdul Kalam, Vikram Sarabhai had expert management skills and team building skills with which he groomed Abdul Kalam into becoming a scientist to remember for years to come. In one of his meeting with Vikram Sarabhai at 3 a.m, Abdul Kalam worked hours at stretch with his colleague for presentation to defense minister and he forgets an important personal event to attend to, this shows Kalams determination for his work and his country to succeed. ISRO, prithvi, agni, nag, trishul are some of the achievements which every Indian is proud of. It was a moment to cherish when India made its first journey to the moon and along with this journey to success was Abdul Kalams belief that nothing can stop India from reaching the stars and he certainly proved himself as one of the stars. Considering that this book comes from a scientist, this book does have little scientific narration. SLV, Geo satellite, composite material, mechanical engineering and such things. The journey itself always has technical errors especially when its scientific in nature. Abdul Kalam, like the man himself forced his will to victory over failures, fears and disappointments. At the core, the book is about the great Indian dream. A wish that all the founding fathers of a country have, a wish fulfilled by Abdul Kalam. A country which is divided by religion and caste. A country which has a corrupt political system and where money rules, Abdul Kalam still made millions of citizens of India a proud nation. Aftermath

Eating Disorders and Ballet - Anorexia Nervosa is Eating the Soul of Yo

Eating Disorders and Ballet - Anorexia Nervosa is Eating the Soul of Young Dancers The applauding audience, the lights, sequins and feathers, the colorful, elaborate tutus, and satin pointe shoes capture the hearts of young girls. Where else can a young girl dream of becoming a princess, a swan, a dancing snowflake or flower, or a sugarplum fairy? Where else can she be a fairy tale character like Cinderella or Sleeping Beauty? Where else can she be rescued by her handsome prince and collapse into his arms? Ballet is the magical world where these dreams can come true. Young girls and women can be all of these things, symbolizing femininity in a culture that teaches young girls to be and want everything pink and pretty. However, in the shadow of the spotlight lurks an abusive world of eating disorders and malnourished dancers. When the performance ends, the dancers return to their regular routine of dancing five to seven hours a day, including both classes and rehearsal. During auditions, performances, and sometimes at random, it is not uncommon for a dancer to walk into what she thinks will be her daily ballet class and find a scale set up in the center of the dance studio instead (S. Gordon 42). These â€Å"weigh-ins† are arranged ahead of time but kept a secret from the dancers. A director from American Ballet Theatre explained that warning the dancers of the â€Å"weigh-in† to come would defeat the purpose. â€Å"A fore-warned dancer is a fore-starved dancer† (S. Gordon 43). Not only are the dancer’s weights recorded and compared but many times they are read aloud to the entire class. Famous choreographer George Balanchine was known to comment to his dancers, â€Å"Eat nothing!† and â€Å"I must see bones!† as he poked t... ..., Felicia. Understanding Anorexia Nervosa. Spring Field, IL, 1986. Rosenberg, Z'ev. "It's Your Metabolism, Not Your Diet". July 1994. 17, Oct. 2003. http://www.natural-connection.com. Something Fishy. â€Å"The Incidence rate of Anorexia in ballet dancers†. Oct. 2003. 17, Oct. 2003. http://www.something-fishy.org/cultural/ballet.php . SouthCoast Today. â€Å"Eating Disorder Blamed in Dancer’s Death†. 17, Oct. 2003. 17, Oct. 2003. http://www.s-t.com/daily/07-97/07-11-97/a03sr019.htm Vandereycken, Walter. From Fasting Saints to Anorexic Girls; the History of Self-Starvation. Washington Square, NY: New York University Press,1994. Wuhl, Charles M. â€Å"Anorexia Nervosa†. The World Book Encyclopedia. Chicago: Scott Fetzer, 1987. Young, Margi. â€Å"Dancing In Your Own Skin†. Oct. 2003. 27, Oct. 2003. http://www.dancespirit.com/backissues/april01/dancersbody.shtml.

Prostitution - Thailand/Canada Essay -- social issues

Prostitution - Thailand/Canada Introduction Prostitution exists in almost all cultures and civilizations of the world today. Just as the cultures differ richly from one another, prostitution and prostitution policy vary greatly throughout the globe. Although the act of prostitution itself is widely similar all over, the policies that are affecting the sex trade are the most influential in shaping the unique and individual sex industries of different countries. This paper takes a look at two very different countries with very different cultural value systems within them. Not surprisingly their perspectives on prostitution differ significantly as well. These two nations are Canada and Thailand; classic examples of Western culture and Eastern culture. We have found no study that suggests that prostitution is more prevalent in either culture, but in general prostitution carries less of a social stigma in Eastern Nations, especially Thailand, than it does in the Western Nations. To begin with we shall examine the specific prostitution legislation within each country, but as we shall soon see the difference between legislation and practice is remarkable. Although prostitution has existed for thousands of years, laws controlling the nature of the sex trade are only a few hundred years old. An epidemic of sexually transmitted disease in 16th century Europe, led to the first serious efforts to control prostitution, as public health considerations demanded further regulatory legislation. Morality and cultural ethics have also played a huge role in determining the position of prostitutes in society. When analyzing the difference between the Canadian sex trade and the Thai sex trade, it is extremely important to keep in mind how Judeo-Christian ethics form the foundation of the Canadian policy. Prostitution laws in Canada Throughout Canada’s history, prostitution has been legal. However, a visitor or even a citizen may never be aware of this fact. This is due to the impeding laws stated in the Canadian criminal code. Canada has a very clear position on prostitution in theory. Part VII of the Canadian criminal code; Laws pertaining to prostitution, state that â€Å"bawdy houses† are illegal (Criminal Code sections 210 and 211), procuring and living on the avails of prostitution of another person are also prohibited (section 212). Procuring and living on the... ...ior is widely accepted in the tourist districts of Thailand, and these girls who service the farangs are part of an established subculture. What does the future hold for Canada and Thailand? Although Canada has recently been increasing criminilization policies, the effects of these policies are just now being looked at. In 1995 many provinces worked together to form the Federal-Provincial-Territorial Working Group on prostitution. The Working Group has been since trying to reform prostitution laws throughout Canada. Referring once again to that Judeo-Christian ethic, the biggest problem in handling prostitution for Western countries is that nobody wants to enact any law that seemingly condones prostitution. The growing opinion is however that the problems of prostitution are not problems of social morality, but problems of social order, and accepting prostitution is the quickest way to control it. As far as Thailand goes, they may not have the technology or industry of the Western nations, but they are advanced enough to have already realized that sex for sale is not a threat. It seems as if the state of affairs will continue in Thailand, as they are now, for quite some time.

Diet Pills Essay -- Health, Appetite Control

Science and technology have revolutionized the lifestyle of man. The modern man is submerged by a world of hectic life. Everything is done very fast due to time constrain which unconsciously affected our health and fitness. On top of that, excessive workloads have reduced our time for exercises and health maintenance. Besides all these modern life’s things, millions of Americans claim that winter is the most common season for people to gain weight as the cold weather discourages outside exercise (Richards 2008). As a result, studies have depicted that more people are getting overweight every year and it has become a constant issue for millions of people. If decades ago, a person who is thin could be considered as ill but now everybody wants to be slim just like the magazine cover girls. Since diet pills seemed to be a quick fix to this problem, (Richards 2008) it becomes very important for everyone to know the side effects of taking diet pills. To begin with, diet pills are more than an appetite suppressant. Appetite control would make weight loss goals easier to achieve. Unfortunately, appetite control is easier said than done as it is not something that everyone is capable of (Thadani 2009). That is why most people tend to seek help from the magic diet pills. It is because, appetite suppressant diet pills help to kill an individual’s appetite and hunger which can make the person goes on for a long period without feeling the needs to consume food (Thadani 2009). However, it is worth to bear in mind that our body need adequate amount of food for growth, nourishment and producing energy (Thadani 2009). This is the dangerous part of appetite suppressant diet pills where they give false instruction to the body that it does not req... ...). On top of that, if obese people use diet pills to help control their weight have already stressed hearts and elevated blood pressure due to their weight, and if diet pills are added, this only exacerbates the problem and can cause permanent heart damage (Richards 2008). As a conclusion, ingredients that present in diet pills can cause harmful effects to our body. All in all, most diet pills bring more negative effects for they only act as appetite suppressant, give only a temporary fix and contains harmful substances to our body. Unfortunately, the best way to shed those pounds is nothing new. Physician, dietitians and nutritionists unanimously agree that eating a moderate and balanced diet along with regular exercise is the best way to maintain a healthy weight. Being healthy does not mean to have a slimmer body, but to have an ideal shape and staying fit.

Essay Invisible Hand Essay

The invisible hand is a metaphor coined by the economist Adam Smith. Once in â€Å"The Wealth of Nations† and other writings, Smith demonstrated that, in a free market, an individual pursuing his own self-interest tends to also promote the good of his community as a whole through a principle that he called â€Å"the invisible hand†. He argued that each individual maximizing revenue for himself maximizes the total revenue of society as a whole, as this is identical with the sum total of individual revenues. Smith used the term ‘invisible hand’ only three times, but the metaphor later gained widespread use Several new interpretations of Adam Smith’s invisible hand have recently been published in leading general-interest economic journals. These interpretations attempt to bring Smith forward in time, to make him more modern, and to fashion him in the image of the modern welfare theorist. Here we go back in time and find the source for both of Smith’s economic applications of the invisible hand in Richard Cantillon’s model of the isolated estate. With this connection established, we know what Smith read and dubbed the invisible hand. Introduction We now know a great deal about the intricacies and details of Adam Smith’s life and economics. Scholars have, for example, poured over his views on the organization of religion, his views of the corporation, and even his tenure as a tax collector, and have established definite conclusions. In contrast, Smith’s most famous concept—â€Å"the invisible hand†Ã¢â‚¬â€has in recent years been placed in an intellectual quagmire as a result of a surprising resurgence of interest in the meaning of the concept. Several new interpretations of the concept have been published in the leading general-interest economic journals, as well as those that specialize in the history of economic thought. This widespread effort to discover the â€Å"true† meaning of the invisible hand appears to have muddied the conceptual waters almost beyond recognition. There are now at least a dozen different versions of the invisible hand ranging from the more traditional interpretations to those which attach the phrase to such things as slavery and national defense. Smith’s invisible hand now suffers from multiple-conception disorder and the lack of an acceptable definition could render Smith’s concept scientifically useless. The opening quote from Khalil represents one of the few sensible modern interpretations of Smith (the process theorist) because it shows both how far modern interpreters have gone astray—painting Smith forward in time as a modern neoclassical welfare (end state) theorist, and why there is so much confusion—Smith’s three different uses of the phrase. To resolve the mystery of the meaning of the invisible hand, I would like to go backward in time and show that Smith discovered the general conceptual framework for the invisible hand in Richard Cantillon’s Essai sur la Nature du Commerce en General (hereafter, Essai). Cantillon’s model of the isolated estate represents a revolutionary breakthrough in economic theory and both of Smith’s economic applications of the invisible hand—which hitherto have been understood to be disconnected—can be found in it. This linkage between Smith and Cantillon permits us to describe the invisible hand as the processes that constitute price theory, competition, and distribution. First, however i will briefly describe the heated debate in the general-interest journals over the meaning of the invisible hand and then present the broader connections that scholars have made between Cantillon and Smith. Part I Understood as a metaphor Smith uses the metaphor in the context of an argument against protectionism and government regulation of markets, but it is based on very broad principles developed by Bernard Mandeville, Bishop Butler, Lord Shaftesbury, and Francis Hutcheson. In general, the term â€Å"invisible hand† can apply to any individual action that has unplanned, unintended consequences, particularly those which arise from actions not orchestrated by a central command and which have an observable, patterned effect on the community. Bernard Mandeville argued that private vices are actually public benefits. In â€Å"The Fable of the Bees† (1714), he laments that the â€Å"bees of social virtue are buzzing in Man’s bonnet†: that civilized man has stigmatized his private appetites and the result is the retardation of the common good. Bishop Butler argued that pursuing the public good was the best way of advancing one’s own good since the two were necessarily identical. Lord Shaftesbury turned the convergence of public and private good around, claiming that acting in accordance with one’s self-interest will produce socially beneficial results. An underlying unifying force that Shaftesbury called the â€Å"Will of Nature† maintains equilibrium, congruency, and harmony. This force, if it is to operate freely, requires the individual pursuit of rational self-interest, and the preservation and advancement of the self. Francis Hutcheson also accepted this convergence between public and private interest, but he attributed the mechanism, not to rational self-interest, but to personal intuition, which he called a â€Å"moral sense. † Smith developed his own version of this general principle in which six psychological motives combine in each individual to produce the common good. In â€Å"The Theory of Moral Sentiments†, vol. II, page 316, he says, â€Å"â€Å"By acting according to the dictates of our moral faculties, we necessarily pursue the most effective means for promoting the happiness of mankind. †Ã¢â‚¬  Contrary to common misconceptions, Smith did not assert that all self-interested labour necessarily benefits society, or that all public goods are produced through self-interested labour. His proposal is merely that in a free market, people â€Å"usually† tend to produce goods desired by their neighbours. The tragedy of the commons is an example where self-interest tends to bring an unwanted result. Moreover, a free market arguably provides numerous opportunities for maximizing one’s own profit at the expense (rather than for the benefit) of others. The tobacco industry is often cited as an example of this: the sale of cigarettes and other tobacco products certainly brings a very good revenue, but the industry’s critics deny that the social benefits (the pleasures associated with smoking, the camaraderie, the feeling of doing something â€Å"cool†) can possibly outbalance the social costs. Part II Economists’ Interpretation of The Wealth of Nations quote The concept of the Invisible Hand is nearly always generalized beyond Smith’s original discussion of domestic versus foreign trade. Smith himself participated in such generalization, as is already evident in his allusion to â€Å"many other cases†, quoted above. Notice that the invisible hand is here considered a natural inclination, not yet a social mechanism as it was later classified by Leon Walras and Vilfredo Pareto. Many economists claim that the theory of the Invisible Hand states that if each consumer is allowed to choose freely what to buy and each producer is allowed to choose freely what to sell and how to produce it, the market will settle on a product distribution and prices that are beneficial to the all individual members of a community, and hence to the community as a whole. The reason for this is that greed will drive actors to beneficial behavior. Efficient methods of production will be adopted in order to maximize profits. Low prices will be charged in order to undercut competitors. Investors will invest in those industries that are most urgently needed to maximize returns, and withdraw capital from those that are less efficient in creating value. Students will be guided to prepare for the most needed (and therefore most remunerative) careers. And all these effects will take place dynamically and automatically. It also works as a balancing mechanism. For example, the inhabitants of a poor country will be willing to work very cheaply. Entrepreneurs can make great profits by building factories in poor countries. But since they increase the demand for labor, they will increase its price. And since the new producers will also become consumers, local businesses will have to hire more people in order to provide for them the things that they want to consume. As this process continues, the labor prices will eventually rise to the point at which there is no advantage for the foreign countries doing business in the formerly poor country. Overall, this mechanism will cause the local economy to function on its own. In The Wealth of Nations Smith provides a metaphor that illustrates the simplicity of the principle: It is not from the benevolence of the butcher, the brewer or the baker that we expect our dinner, but from their regard to their own interest. We address ourselves not to their humanity but to their self-love, and never talk to them of our necessities but of their advantages. Nobody but a beggar chooses to depend chiefly upon the benevolence of their fellow-citizens. Part III Examples and arguments A very simple real world example of how the invisible hand is supposed to ork is the queue for a supermarket checkout. Each customer getting in line selfishly chooses to maximize his own interest, that is to checkout in the shortest time, regardless of the other customers. Their utility maximizing choice is to get in queue in the shortest line, this means that eventually customers queue up in lines all of the same length. Therefore even without the slightest direction and by following only their selfishness, the lines are all of the same length, which is clearly the most efficient disposition. (This examples also illustrates the ties between economics and game theory. Note that to reap these benefits, the market should at least exist — in the total absence of regulation, if people were allowed to cut the queue, the result of selfish pursuit of interests would be a crowded mess. Also, as this example also illustrates, economists have a particular understanding of efficiency. If a woman in the supermarket seeking to checkout is pregnant, carrying a crying child who is diabetic and who needs to eat dinner in the shortest amount of time possible, then it may be more efficient to allow her to jump the queue. Since Smith’s time, the principle of the invisible hand has been further incorporated into economic theory. Leon Walras developed a four equation general equilibrium model which concludes that individual self-interest operating in a competitive market place produces the unique conditions under which a society’s total utility is maximized. Vilfredo Pareto used an edgeworth box contact line to illustrate a similar social optimality. Ludwig von Mises, in Human Action, claims that Smith believed that the invisible hand was that of God. He did not mean this as a criticism, since he held that secular reasoning leads to similar conclusions. The invisible hand is traditionally understood as a concept in economics, but Robert Nozick argues in Anarchy, State and Utopia that substantively the same concept exists in a number of other areas of academic discourse under different names, notably Darwinian natural selection. In turn, Daniel Dennett has argued in Darwin’s Dangerous Idea that this represents a â€Å"universal acid† which may be applied to a number of seemingly disparate areas of philosophical enquiry (consciousness and free will in particular).

Canadian History: 1920’s

The 1920’s were known as the â€Å"Roaring Twenties† because industries shifted to peace time production and experienced an economic boom. The people that experienced the â€Å"good times† in the 1920’s were predominantly the white males. But other groups weren’t so lucky. There where many issues in this era but the main ones were the injustice and inequality of women, Native People and children. During the 1920’s the Native People were treated unequally and with out justice, due to government policies and practices of assimilation, residential schools and denial of self government. The culture of Canada’s Native People was being cut away by the social policy. The Native People ceremonies had been banned and the children had been taken away to government run schools. These schools tried to assimilate the children by putting a taboo on Native teachings and traditions. The Federal government limited their freedom. Chief Deskadeh of the Six Nations took his case to the new international peacekeeping body – the League of Nations (now UN). â€Å"Although embarrassed by the international attention Ottawa refused to give into. (Hundey) Other Native leaders fought for their rights such as right to vote from the government reservation lands. Many rights were lost due to the stubborn government, but they still continued to fight for their freedom. It was difficult for women in the 1920’s to receive equal treatment, since women were still considered inferior to men. Although women won political rights they were still not recognized by the representati ve government as persons under the law. For example, women could not hold a seat under the Canadian Senate. Some laws changed but the attitude towards women’s roles stayed the same. Women were kept back in school, work and politics. It was the same with young girls. Girls did not stay in school as long as boys did. All they learned was about mothering and nursing. Soon more women started going to university despite the fact that most were held back. â€Å"From 1891 to 1930 the percentage of undergraduates that were female grew 11. 9%. † (Hundey). Although the acceptance of women was rising and more women were going to school, society still saw women only as caregivers and mothers. The exploitation of children was a key issue in the 1920’s and was left unresolved for another few decades. Laws allowing child labour passed in the late 19th century were the reason why child labour was widely accepted. Many children tried to stay in school but most left at the age of sixteen to join the workforce. Many farming and fishing families relied on children to help out with the businesses. In the 1920’s home children were often exploited. Home children – â€Å"British orphans or members of poor families who were sent to Canada to start a new life. (Hudey) Many of them were overworked and neglected, but this inhuman scheme stopped at the start of The Great Depression. In 1929 children under the age of fourteen were prohibited from working in factories and mines. Children were one of many groups that were exploited and used in the 1920’s. Although this practice ended in Canada, some countries in the world still use children as cheap labour. Many groups were not socially accepted by the people experiencing the â€Å"good times†. Native people, children and women were just a few of many others. Natives were not considered equal to the rest of society in the 1920’s and were racially separated through schools and reserves. Women won rights in the 1920’s but still weren’t considered persons by society and struggled to receive equality. Many children were exploited in the 1920’s as cheap labour, but that ended with the decade. Humans are humans and should be treated no differently than others. Humans are all equal and should not be discriminated.